In the late eighteenth century antiquarian John Brand recorded the following Christmas-time practice:
In several counties the custom of apple-howling (or Yuling), is still in observance. A troop of boys go round the orchards in Sussex, Devonshire, and other parts, and forming a ring about the trees, they repeat these doggerel lines:
Stand fast root, bear well top, Pray God send us a good howling crop; Every twig, apples big: Every bough, apples enou; Hats full, caps full, Full quarter sacks full.
For which incantation the confused rabble expect a gratuity in money or drink, which is no less welcome: but if they are disappointed of both, they with great solemnity anathematize the owners and trees with altogether as significant a curse. It seems highly probable that this custom has arisen from the ancient one of perambulation among the heathens, when they made prayers to the gods for the use and blessing of the fruits coming up, with thanksgiving for those of the preceding year; and as the heathens supplicated Eolus, god of the winds, for his favourable blasts, so in this custom they still retain his name with a very small variation; this ceremony is called Youling, and the word is often used in their invocations.
Like most of these rural customs Apple Howling died out by the early 20th century but it has recently been revived by a group of Morris dancers in Sussex. After poetically encouraging the orchard, a spiced and cider-soaked wassail cake is placed in a fork of the tree and cider is poured over the roots to promote good growth. The group then proceeds to thrash the apple trees with sticks. The harder the blow, the more the tree is expected to yield in the coming year.
Estonian Christmas is a fascinating blend of Orthodox, Lutheran and pagan elements with influences from Scandinavia, North America and Russia also playing their part. It was a holiday that was banned, along with many other religious observances, during the era of post-war Soviet domination — as in the USSR, New Year was promoted as the replacement winter holiday. Since 1989 and the collapse of the Iron Curtain Estonians have been rediscovering Christmas and reformulating it according to their new circumstances.
Like their Nordic cousins Estonians mark the approach of Christmas with Advent calendars and the lighting of Advent candles. Children believe that if they place their shoes out on the window sill during the month of December the elves will fill them with little treats. Though baking, cleaning and shopping will occupy much of Advent, the official beginning of the Christmas season occurs on December 21, St Thomas’s Day, when in the Middle Ages it was customary for work to cease for the holiday. One recent Scandinavian import has been the Christmas office party, or “little Christmas”.
Though some say that the Christmas tree is a German import which became popular only in the nineteenth century, others say that the custom has a longer history. According to some the earliest record of an evergreen tree being used in conjunction with Christmas was in Tallinn, Estonia in 1441. Whatever the truth of the matter there is no doubt that the tree, almost always a fir, is a big part of Christmas today in most Estonian homes. Those who live in the country make it a family practice to go into the woods and harvest the tree themselves. Commercial decorations, folk art and candles are traditional ways to adorn the tree.
On Christmas Eve the president of Estonia follows a 350 year old tradition and declares a Christmas Peace. That evening Estonians, having made all the preparations for the evening meal, traditionally head for the sauna to be steamed clean. After that they step into new clothes and attend church. After the service it is time for dinner. Though turkey has become popular of late many families retain an older menu: roast pork or goose with sauerkraut and blood sausage. For dessert there is a special Christmas bread and ginger cookies. Some families leave the remains of the Christmas meal on the table until the next morning for the spirits of the family dead who will visit the home for Christmas Eve.
Estonians have adopted the Finnish vision of the gift-bringer, a Santa Claus figure who lives in Lappland and who travels by reindeer-drawn sleigh. Once the gifts are delivered Estonians gather about the tree and have to earn the right to open them by performing a song or reciting a poem. Other Christmas Eve activities might include a fireworks display or visiting the graves of family members and lighting a candle — an activity that was a tacit anti-communist, pro-Christian demonstration in the days of Soviet occupation.
Since independence Christmas Day is once again a holiday and is generally spent at home. December 26 is a little more active and involves visiting family and friends. The Christmas season ends on Epiphany and most folk will have taken their tree down by January 6 unless they are of the Orthodox persuasion in which case they are celebrating Christmas Eve and still have more festive days to look forward to
The English Civil War of the 1640s brought a Puritan-dominated government to the country. It legislated against important aspects of the Church of England: the rule by archbishops and bishops, the Book of Common Prayer, clerical dress, and the observation of certain holy days. In 1644 Parliament insisted that December 25 be observed as a day of obligatory fasting.
In Hamlet, Marcellus, referring to the royal ghost, says: “It faded on the crowing of the cock. Some say that ever gainst that season comes wherein our Saviour’s birth is celebrated, this bird of dawning singeth all night long, and then, they say, no spirit dare walk abroad, The nights are wholesome, then no planets strike, No fairy takes, nor witch hath power to charm, so hallowed and so gracious is that time.” However, despite Shakespeare’s optimism about the weakness of demonic power during Christmas, folk in most European countries have thought the season to be one of increased menace from grim supernatural forces. It was widely believed that as the hour for celebrating Christ’s birth drew closer, the forces of darkness raged ever more furiously against humanity.
The sixteenth-century historian Olaus Magnus said that in Prussia, Livonia and Lithuania werewolves gathered on Christmas night and then spread out to “rage with wondrous ferocity against human beings…for when a human habitation has been detected by them isolated in the woods, they besiege it with atrocity, striving to break in the doors and in the event of doing so, they devour all the human beings, and every animal which is found within.” At a certain castle the monsters held werewolf games and those too fat to leap over a wall were eaten by their fitter comrades.
It was also a medieval belief in Latvia and Estonia that “at Christmas a boy lame of leg goes round the country summoning the devil’s followers, who are countless, to a general conclave. Whoever remains behind, or goes reluctantly, is scourged by another with an iron whip…The human form vanishes and the whole multitude becomes wolves.” In Poland and northeastern Europe, it was believed that a child born on Christmas had a greater chance of becoming a werewolf and ritual steps were taken to prevent Christmas babies from this state. On a milder note, in Louisiana it is said that Père Noel travels through the swamps and bayous on Christmas Eve in a flat-bottomed pirogue pulled by alligators and accompanied by a red-nosed were-wolf.
During pre-modern times, there was often confusion between good female spirits and bad, and a saint in one area might be regarded as a witch in another. Lucia for example is celebrated as a saint in Sicily and Sweden but in Central Europe she is the frightening Lutzelfrau who disembowels bad children and punishes lazy girls. Frau Berchta or Perchta can be a stealer of children in one part of Germany or the bringer of Christmas presents in another. In some places she leads the Wild Host, a gang of cursed souls of the unbaptized and murdered, in others she leaves surprising gifts for those who help her. On Twelfth Night in some areas fish and rolls have to be eaten. If someone chooses to ignore this menu, Perchta will come and cut open his body, fill him with chaff and sew him up again with a ploughshare and an iron chain. It was best to stay out of the way of such figures and keep them from gaining admission to the house.
In order to safeguard humans and livestock against these evil spirits certain Christmas-time precautions were taken. The ringing of church bells had power to drive them away as did holy water sprinkled in corners of houses and barns; incense has a similar effect. Logs were left burning in fireplaces at night — sprinkling salt on the fire also helped as did choosing dry spruce which always provided an abundance of sparks. In much of Central Europe it was believed that loud noises will deter the forces of darkness and a number of ceremonies revolve around the firing of guns, the cracking of whips, the ringing of cow-bells and noisy processions of grotesquely costumed figures to drive demons away. In Austria the Twelve Nights are known as the “Rauhnächte” or “rough nights”; this is a time for driving evil spirits away by incense, loud noises or using a broom. Figures clad as witches and devils will walk the streets with brooms, literally sweeping away unwanted spirits. In England it was a time to polish the silverware so that spirits could see their faces and thus be deterred from stealing.
In fairness it must be noted that sometimes devils such as Krampus, Klaubauf or Cert accompany the St Nicholas or the Christ Child on their Christmas gift-giving rounds and serve to frighten bad children into good behaviour. It should also be said that there are good witches at Christmas as well. In Italy the Befana, who is depicted as an old crone flying about on her broom, brings presents to children on Epiphany Eve. Her equivalent in Russia is the Baboushka. In the Franche-Comté the Gift-Bringer is also depicted as witch: goose-footed Tante Arie who comes down from the hills with her presents on Christmas Eve.
Christmas in Bulgaria shares many of the customs found among its east European neighbours such as the twelve-course meatless meal on Christmas Eve (which always includes the cheese pastry banitza), the central spot on the table for the large loaf of bread and the ancient customs of the Yule log and the ritual beatings with switches on New Year’s Day.
Unique to Bulgaria is the notion of celebrating Christmas twice — on December 25 and 26. During the Communist regime imposed after World War II religious holidays like Christmas were suppressed so the people cleverly invented a secular holiday which resembled Christmas and which was celebrated on December 26. With the fall of the Iron Curtain Christmas festivities can once again be held openly but the newer holiday has not been discarded
Bulgarians are great supporters of choral traditions and the custom of the koleduvane, Christmas Eve carol singing by troupes of boys, has lovingly been preserved. Dressed in colourful native costumes with embroidered shirts, fur hats and hooded cloaks the koledari go door to door to sing wishes of prosperity for the coming year. They are rewarded by home-owners with treats of pastry, fruit and other delicacies.
The Bulgarian version of the Yule log is called the Budnik. On Christmas Eve a young man chops down a pear, elm or oak tree which must be carried home without it touching the ground. When he reaches home, he engages in a call-and-response ritual with the family inside. Three times he will ask “Do you glorify the young god?” Three times the family responds with “We glorify him! Welcome”. Before being burned in the fireplace the log is filled with incense. In the morning, the fire will be extinguished with wine and the ash and charred wood will be used to bless the harvest for the coming year.
Illex aquifolium, a plant whose greenery has long been associated with Christmas and magical powers.
During bleak Decembers, the red berries and green leaves of the holly make the plant a natural choice for decorating homes and churches for the Christmas season. Holly can be found in wreaths, on altars and tables, in doorways and accompanying the mistletoe or Kissing Bunch; its image can be seen on Christmas cards, gift wrap and seasonal art.
Holly reminded medieval Christians of both the Incarnation and the Passion: its berries seeming to be drops of blood and its prickles reminiscent of the Crown of Thorns that circled Christ’s brow at his crucifixion. In fact, in one legend, holly was the tree that was used for the cross, a dubious distinction also given in other legends to the mistletoe.
Supernatural virtues are attributed to holly in many countries. It can be used for divining the future: a ritual for determining one’s mate calls for the curious to pick nine berries in silence at Friday midnight, to then tie the berries with nine knots in a three-cornered handkerchief, and place them under the pillow. If one can remain silent until next morning one will dream of the future spouse. Holly is a weapon against witchcraft and English girls used to tie the plant to their beds to ward off demons. In Louisiana berries were said protect folk from the evil eye and lightning — a belief that was echoed in Germany as long as the holly had previously been used in decorating the church. Tossing a sprig of holly on the Christmas fire would guarantee an end to troubles and the plant was also looked to a cure for rheumatism, asthma, bad dreams, coughing and the gout.
In folkore the prickly-leafed holly is considered “male” and the smooth-leafed variety “female”. Which type was brought first into the house at Christmas would determine who ruled the roost that year, the husband or the wife. Moreover, while ivy was considered a female plant which brought luck to women, the holly was said to bring good fortune to men.
Christmas is built upon a beautiful and intentional paradox; that the birth of the homeless should be celebrated in every home. – G.K. Chesterton
December 25 — Christmas Day! “Glory to God in the Highest, and on earth, peace and goodwill towards men.” So no great shells were fired into the Boer entrenchments at dawn, and the hostile camps remained tranquil throughout the day. Even the pickets forbore to snipe each other, and both armies attended divine service in the morning and implored Heaven’s blessing on their righteous causes. In the afternoon the British held athletic sports, an impromptu military tournament, and a gymkhana, all of which caused much merriment and diversion, and the Boers profited by the cessation of the shell fire to shovel away at their trenches. In the evening there were Christmas dinners in our camp—roast beef, plum pudding, a quart of beer for everyone, and various smoking concerts afterwards. I cannot describe the enemy’s festivities. – Winston Churchill, “London to Ladysmith via Pretoria”, 1900
The voluntarist-nominalist movement of the fourteenth century has more to its credit than the fostering of scientific thought. It was the philosophical inspiration also for the Reformers. It gave them the tools to attack the Thomist epistemology which allowed that in principle (and in fairness to St. Thomas one should stress the phrase ‘in principle’), natural man might perceive natural values and natural meanings without the aid of revelation. To this the Reformers reacted with a powerful and authentically Christian stress on the decisiveness of revelation. But revelation for them was really a Christological matter: to question the need of revelation was to question the need of Christ. The meaning of the world, the ‘Logos’, came down at Christmas; the man without Christmas is a man without meaning. The bestowal of meaning is part of God’s saving work in history, for in nature man can discern no meaning. – Oliver O’Donovan, “The Natural Ethic”, in Essays in Evangelical Social Ethics, 1983
Charles Lamb, in one of his most delightful essays, sets high worth on the observance of All Fools’ Day, because says to a man: “You look wise. Pray correct that error!” Christmas brings the universal message to men: “You look important and great; pray correct that error.” It overturns the false standards that have blinded the vision and sets up again in their rightful magnitude those childlike qualities by which we enter the Kingdom. Christmas turns things inside out. Under the spell of the Christmas story the locked up treasures of kindliness and sympathy come from the inside of the heart, where they are often kept imprisoned, to the outside of actual expression in deed and word. . . It is the vision of the Christ-child which enables all men to get at the best treasures of their lives and offer them for use. – Halford Edward Luccock, “Everything Upside Down”, 1915
Yesterday’s post was on Italian Epiphany (Befana) in 1921. This was the year before the fascist takeover of that country. Under the Duce (dictator) Benito Mussolini, Christmas customs were changed and the holiday was appropriated for the purposes of the totalitarian state. Lavish New Year’s dinners were discouraged, the Christmas tree was derided as a nasty foreign import from the north, and the nativity scene was promoted in its stead.
In January 1928, the Befana Fascista was instituted. The children of the working class were given presents by the state and Mussolini’s picture replaced any traditional gift-giver such as the kindly Befana witch or any saint. In this image the traditional Befana is shown putting the portrait of il Duce in her bag.
Below is a 1938 picture of two “Sons of the Wolf” (the fascist equivalent of the Boy Scouts) receiving their Befana Fascista gifts.
In Italian, Befana can refer either to Epiphany (January 6), the traditional time for Christmas gift-giving, or to the kindly witch of that name who delivers the presents.
In this 1921 image a kindly rich woman delivers presents to children of the working class who have been orphaned by World War One.
During the Second World War, all sides made propaganda appeals to enemy soldiers to weaken their morale, to encourage desertion, or to promote the idea of voluntary surrender. Here is a particularly duplicitous example printed by the Soviets for distribution across enemy lines to German troops.
Note the use of Christmas images — German prisoners with Santa Claus, gaily decorating a huge Christmas tree. The food is lavishly plentiful and letters from home are read. The reality for Germans captured by the Red Army was much more grim. Of those soldiers taken prisoner at Stalingrad, 95% died in captivity. Hundreds of thousands of Wehrmacht soldiers were kept as slave labour in the USSR for 10 years after the war.
