On Christmas Eve, it was customary customary with young people in the North of England to dive for apples, or catch at them, when stuck upon one end of a kind of hanging beam, at the other extremity of which is fixed a lighted candle, and that with their mouths only, their hands being tied behind their backs. Nuts and apples chiefly compose the entertainment, and from the custom of flinging the former into the fire, or cracking them with their teeth, it has doubtless had its vulgar name of Nutcrack Night. In Goldsmith’s time, the country folks religiously observed this nutcracking festival, as he tells us in his ” Vicar of Wakefield.” Stafford says, they (certain deluded men) ” make me call to mind an old Christmas gambole, contrived with a thred which being fastened to some beame, hath at the nether end of it a sticke, at the one end of which is tied a candle, and at the other end an apple; so that when a man comes to bite at the apple, the candle burnes his nose. The catching at the apple and candle may be called playing at something like the ancient English game of the quintain, which is now almost totally forgotten. Hutchinson, somewhat fancifully perhaps, identified this Christian usage with the rites anciently observed in honour of Pomona [the Roman goddess of trees and fruits].
Thomas Nast (1840-1902) was the German-born American cartoonist whose depictions of Santa Claus helped to popularize a standard image of the North American Gift-Bringer and who added interesting details to Santa’s biography. As an illustrator for Harper’s Illustrated Weekly he would become famous as a political cartoonist inventing both the Republican elephant and Democratic donkey that are still used to represent the main American political parties. His zeal for reform helped bring down the corrupt rule of Boss Tweed in New York and elect Ulysses Grant as President.
But it is his drawings of Santa Claus that have made his reputation endure. Nast combined his memories of Christmas in Germany with an American sensibility to produce the prototype for the developing image of Santa, one that was to endure when rival images had long since been forgotten. For Nast the Gift-Bringer was kindly, fat and jolly, clothed (as “A Visit From St Nicholas” demanded) in furs from his head to his foot with a broad belt about his middle. Though Santa’s clothes have changed over the years the face and personality of all later depictions are ultimately derived from Nast. To Nast we also owe the notion of a North Pole workshop and the earliest depiction of children leaving out a snack for St. Nick. Many of the notions children in much of the world entertain about Santa were given expression by Nast: the book that recorded the deeds of good and bad kids, Santa’s spying on their activities, the working conditions in his polar operation, and the piles of letters from around the globe.
During the American Civil War Nast illustrated Santa in the Stars and Stripes of the Union cause and showed him bringing Christmas cheer to Federal troops at the front. This helped to spread the celebration of Christmas in the United States, to link it with the idea of family reunion and to associate it forever with Santa Claus. It also prompted reaction from the South where Santa’s apparent partisanship had to be explained to the children.
Christmas has always had two powerful forces contending with it: the religious celebration of the Nativity of Jesus and the festivities of midwinter. At times one or the other has been dominant. In the late-18th and early-19th centuries in the English-speaking world, the religious aspect had been neglected – many Protestant denominations refused to mark Christmas at all. The emphasis was on hospitality, consumption of alcohol and food, and social gatherings.
The image above is from an 1847 London Illustrated News. The central figure is that of bearded Old Christmas, wreathed in holly, and holding a tankard of strong drink. Though the caption reads “Heaven bless merry gentlefolks, let nothing you dismay”, there is nothing to suggest Christmas has anything to do with the divine. The rest of the illustration is full of alcohol, dancing, blind man’s buff, and banqueting. The season had yet to be fully reformed by Charles Dickens, Santa Claus, and the Oxford Movement.
In many parts of the world Christmas is associated with gunpowder: fireworks and firearms have been “shooting in” the holiday for centuries.
One reason for this is the belief that demonic forces can be driven away with loud noises. The ringing of bells, snapping of whips and shouting are all very well but for for real devil-dispersing noise many Germans rely on rifles. In southern Germany marksmen’s clubs in traditional costume gather on Christmas Eve to fire off antique rifles at midnight. In Berchtesgaden in the Bavarian Alps before midnight mass, 60,000 shots are fired in the space of one hour. In the southwestern United States the parishioners of the Church of San Geronimo at Taos Pueblo carry the statue of the Virgin in a procession accompanied by an honour guard of men in ceremonial dress who periodically fire into the air in order to protect the Virgin and chase away evil spirits. [See photo above] In rural areas of Norway shooting in Christmas takes the form of young men sneaking up to farm houses and discharging their guns to give the inhabitants a shock before being invited in for a drink. Every December 8 in Torrejoncillo, Caceres, Spain the youth of the town wrap themselves in sheets, carry the banner of the Virgin and ride through the streets shooting off shotguns to the cheers of the populace. In Ireland it was once the custom to fire a salute from a shotgun at noon on Christmas Eve.
An account of Labrador in 1770 reads: “At sunset the people ushered in Christmas, according to the Newfoundland custom. In the first place, they built up a prodigious large fire in their house; all hands then assembled before the door, and one of them fired a gun, loaded with powder; afterwards, each of them drank a dram of rum; concluding the ceremony with three cheers. These formalities being performed with great solemnity, they retired into their house, got drunk as fast as they could, and spent the whole night in drinking, quarrelling, and fighting.” A similar Newfoundland custom was Blowing the Pudding.
Christmas in the southern United States is a more popular time for fireworks than July 4 as can be seen from the numerous displays south of the Mason-Dixon line. The most spectacular are probably in Louisiana where the feux de joie(fires of joy) are a traditional part of Cajun Christmas Eve. Huge wooden structures in the form of riverboats, houses and teepees are set on fire, ostensibly to light Papa Noël’s way to the bayous. During the days of slave-owning, slaves would inflate a pig bladder and then explode it in lieu of fire-crackers.
Fireworks are a part of Christmas celebrations all through Latin America but who would have thought they were once a part of the holiday in Switzerland? One worshipper complained in the nineteenth century about a church service where the Christmas tree was decorated with “serpent squibs” and where it was “difficult for the minister to conduct the service, for at all times, except during the prayers, the people were letting off fireworks.”
A popular English Christmas game in which a blind-folded player must catch someone and indentify him or her. The fun lies in coming tantalizingly close to the player without getting caught. In A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens the guests of Scrooge’s nephew Fred play the game in such a way as to further the possibilities of romance:
There was first a game at blind-man’s buff. Of course there was. And I no more believe Topper was really blind than I believe he had eyes in his boots. My opinion is, that it was a done thing between him and Scrooge’s nephew; and that the Ghost of Christmas Present knew it. The way he went after that plump sister in the lace tucker, was an outrage on the credulity of human nature. Knocking down the fire-irons, tumbling over the chairs, bumping against the piano, smothering himself among the curtains, wherever she went, there went he. He always knew where the plump sister was. He wouldn’t catch anybody else. If you had fallen up against him (as some of them did), on purpose, he would have made a feint of endeavouring to seize you, which would have been an affront to your understanding, and would instantly have sidled off in the direction of the plump sister. She often cried out that it wasn’t fair; and it really was not. But when at last, he caught her; when, in spite of all her silken rustlings, and her rapid flutterings past him, he got her into a corner whence there was no escape; then his conduct was the most execrable. For his pretending not to know her; his pretending that it was necessary to touch her head-dress, and further to assure himself of her identity by pressing a certain ring upon her finger, and a certain chain about her neck; was vile, monstrous. No doubt she told him her opinion of it, when, another blind-man being in office, they were so very confidential together, behind the curtains.
An eighteenth-century comment on a darker side of the game reveals: “[T]hen it is lawful to set any thing in the way for Folks to tumble over, whether it be to break Arms, Legs, or Heads, ’tis no matter, for Neck‑or nothing, the Devil loves no Cripples.—This Play, I am told, was first set on foot by the Country Bone‑setters.”
A less boiterous variation was called Shadow-Buff. A “blind man” would sit on one side of a white sheet or tablecloth with a bright light shining on the other side. He would attempt to guess the identity of other players as they walked past the sheet casting shadows.
In the late eighteenth century antiquarian John Brand recorded the following Christmas-time practice:
In several counties the custom of apple-howling (or Yuling), is still in observance. A troop of boys go round the orchards in Sussex, Devonshire, and other parts, and forming a ring about the trees, they repeat these doggerel lines:
Stand fast root, bear well top, Pray God send us a good howling crop; Every twig, apples big: Every bough, apples enou; Hats full, caps full, Full quarter sacks full.
For which incantation the confused rabble expect a gratuity in money or drink, which is no less welcome: but if they are disappointed of both, they with great solemnity anathematize the owners and trees with altogether as significant a curse. It seems highly probable that this custom has arisen from the ancient one of perambulation among the heathens, when they made prayers to the gods for the use and blessing of the fruits coming up, with thanksgiving for those of the preceding year; and as the heathens supplicated Eolus, god of the winds, for his favourable blasts, so in this custom they still retain his name with a very small variation; this ceremony is called Youling, and the word is often used in their invocations.
Like most of these rural customs Apple Howling died out by the early 20th century but it has recently been revived by a group of Morris dancers in Sussex. After poetically encouraging the orchard, a spiced and cider-soaked wassail cake is placed in a fork of the tree and cider is poured over the roots to promote good growth. The group then proceeds to thrash the apple trees with sticks. The harder the blow, the more the tree is expected to yield in the coming year.
Estonian Christmas is a fascinating blend of Orthodox, Lutheran and pagan elements with influences from Scandinavia, North America and Russia also playing their part. It was a holiday that was banned, along with many other religious observances, during the era of post-war Soviet domination — as in the USSR, New Year was promoted as the replacement winter holiday. Since 1989 and the collapse of the Iron Curtain Estonians have been rediscovering Christmas and reformulating it according to their new circumstances.
Like their Nordic cousins Estonians mark the approach of Christmas with Advent calendars and the lighting of Advent candles. Children believe that if they place their shoes out on the window sill during the month of December the elves will fill them with little treats. Though baking, cleaning and shopping will occupy much of Advent, the official beginning of the Christmas season occurs on December 21, St Thomas’s Day, when in the Middle Ages it was customary for work to cease for the holiday. One recent Scandinavian import has been the Christmas office party, or “little Christmas”.
Though some say that the Christmas tree is a German import which became popular only in the nineteenth century, others say that the custom has a longer history. According to some the earliest record of an evergreen tree being used in conjunction with Christmas was in Tallinn, Estonia in 1441. Whatever the truth of the matter there is no doubt that the tree, almost always a fir, is a big part of Christmas today in most Estonian homes. Those who live in the country make it a family practice to go into the woods and harvest the tree themselves. Commercial decorations, folk art and candles are traditional ways to adorn the tree.
On Christmas Eve the president of Estonia follows a 350 year old tradition and declares a Christmas Peace. That evening Estonians, having made all the preparations for the evening meal, traditionally head for the sauna to be steamed clean. After that they step into new clothes and attend church. After the service it is time for dinner. Though turkey has become popular of late many families retain an older menu: roast pork or goose with sauerkraut and blood sausage. For dessert there is a special Christmas bread and ginger cookies. Some families leave the remains of the Christmas meal on the table until the next morning for the spirits of the family dead who will visit the home for Christmas Eve.
Estonians have adopted the Finnish vision of the gift-bringer, a Santa Claus figure who lives in Lappland and who travels by reindeer-drawn sleigh. Once the gifts are delivered Estonians gather about the tree and have to earn the right to open them by performing a song or reciting a poem. Other Christmas Eve activities might include a fireworks display or visiting the graves of family members and lighting a candle — an activity that was a tacit anti-communist, pro-Christian demonstration in the days of Soviet occupation.
Since independence Christmas Day is once again a holiday and is generally spent at home. December 26 is a little more active and involves visiting family and friends. The Christmas season ends on Epiphany and most folk will have taken their tree down by January 6 unless they are of the Orthodox persuasion in which case they are celebrating Christmas Eve and still have more festive days to look forward to
The English Civil War of the 1640s brought a Puritan-dominated government to the country. It legislated against important aspects of the Church of England: the rule by archbishops and bishops, the Book of Common Prayer, clerical dress, and the observation of certain holy days. In 1644 Parliament insisted that December 25 be observed as a day of obligatory fasting.
In Hamlet, Marcellus, referring to the royal ghost, says: “It faded on the crowing of the cock. Some say that ever gainst that season comes wherein our Saviour’s birth is celebrated, this bird of dawning singeth all night long, and then, they say, no spirit dare walk abroad, The nights are wholesome, then no planets strike, No fairy takes, nor witch hath power to charm, so hallowed and so gracious is that time.” However, despite Shakespeare’s optimism about the weakness of demonic power during Christmas, folk in most European countries have thought the season to be one of increased menace from grim supernatural forces. It was widely believed that as the hour for celebrating Christ’s birth drew closer, the forces of darkness raged ever more furiously against humanity.
The sixteenth-century historian Olaus Magnus said that in Prussia, Livonia and Lithuania werewolves gathered on Christmas night and then spread out to “rage with wondrous ferocity against human beings…for when a human habitation has been detected by them isolated in the woods, they besiege it with atrocity, striving to break in the doors and in the event of doing so, they devour all the human beings, and every animal which is found within.” At a certain castle the monsters held werewolf games and those too fat to leap over a wall were eaten by their fitter comrades.
It was also a medieval belief in Latvia and Estonia that “at Christmas a boy lame of leg goes round the country summoning the devil’s followers, who are countless, to a general conclave. Whoever remains behind, or goes reluctantly, is scourged by another with an iron whip…The human form vanishes and the whole multitude becomes wolves.” In Poland and northeastern Europe, it was believed that a child born on Christmas had a greater chance of becoming a werewolf and ritual steps were taken to prevent Christmas babies from this state. On a milder note, in Louisiana it is said that Père Noel travels through the swamps and bayous on Christmas Eve in a flat-bottomed pirogue pulled by alligators and accompanied by a red-nosed were-wolf.
During pre-modern times, there was often confusion between good female spirits and bad, and a saint in one area might be regarded as a witch in another. Lucia for example is celebrated as a saint in Sicily and Sweden but in Central Europe she is the frightening Lutzelfrau who disembowels bad children and punishes lazy girls. Frau Berchta or Perchta can be a stealer of children in one part of Germany or the bringer of Christmas presents in another. In some places she leads the Wild Host, a gang of cursed souls of the unbaptized and murdered, in others she leaves surprising gifts for those who help her. On Twelfth Night in some areas fish and rolls have to be eaten. If someone chooses to ignore this menu, Perchta will come and cut open his body, fill him with chaff and sew him up again with a ploughshare and an iron chain. It was best to stay out of the way of such figures and keep them from gaining admission to the house.
In order to safeguard humans and livestock against these evil spirits certain Christmas-time precautions were taken. The ringing of church bells had power to drive them away as did holy water sprinkled in corners of houses and barns; incense has a similar effect. Logs were left burning in fireplaces at night — sprinkling salt on the fire also helped as did choosing dry spruce which always provided an abundance of sparks. In much of Central Europe it was believed that loud noises will deter the forces of darkness and a number of ceremonies revolve around the firing of guns, the cracking of whips, the ringing of cow-bells and noisy processions of grotesquely costumed figures to drive demons away. In Austria the Twelve Nights are known as the “Rauhnächte” or “rough nights”; this is a time for driving evil spirits away by incense, loud noises or using a broom. Figures clad as witches and devils will walk the streets with brooms, literally sweeping away unwanted spirits. In England it was a time to polish the silverware so that spirits could see their faces and thus be deterred from stealing.
In fairness it must be noted that sometimes devils such as Krampus, Klaubauf or Cert accompany the St Nicholas or the Christ Child on their Christmas gift-giving rounds and serve to frighten bad children into good behaviour. It should also be said that there are good witches at Christmas as well. In Italy the Befana, who is depicted as an old crone flying about on her broom, brings presents to children on Epiphany Eve. Her equivalent in Russia is the Baboushka. In the Franche-Comté the Gift-Bringer is also depicted as witch: goose-footed Tante Arie who comes down from the hills with her presents on Christmas Eve.
Christmas in Bulgaria shares many of the customs found among its east European neighbours such as the twelve-course meatless meal on Christmas Eve (which always includes the cheese pastry banitza), the central spot on the table for the large loaf of bread and the ancient customs of the Yule log and the ritual beatings with switches on New Year’s Day.
Unique to Bulgaria is the notion of celebrating Christmas twice — on December 25 and 26. During the Communist regime imposed after World War II religious holidays like Christmas were suppressed so the people cleverly invented a secular holiday which resembled Christmas and which was celebrated on December 26. With the fall of the Iron Curtain Christmas festivities can once again be held openly but the newer holiday has not been discarded
Bulgarians are great supporters of choral traditions and the custom of the koleduvane, Christmas Eve carol singing by troupes of boys, has lovingly been preserved. Dressed in colourful native costumes with embroidered shirts, fur hats and hooded cloaks the koledari go door to door to sing wishes of prosperity for the coming year. They are rewarded by home-owners with treats of pastry, fruit and other delicacies.
The Bulgarian version of the Yule log is called the Budnik. On Christmas Eve a young man chops down a pear, elm or oak tree which must be carried home without it touching the ground. When he reaches home, he engages in a call-and-response ritual with the family inside. Three times he will ask “Do you glorify the young god?” Three times the family responds with “We glorify him! Welcome”. Before being burned in the fireplace the log is filled with incense. In the morning, the fire will be extinguished with wine and the ash and charred wood will be used to bless the harvest for the coming year.
